Devotional 2: The Canon of Scripture: The Books of the Old and New Testaments

Under the name of Holy Scripture, or the Word of God written, are now contained all the books of the Old and New Testaments, which are these: Of the Old Testament: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges, Ruth, I Samuel, II Samuel, I Kings, II Kings, I Chronicles, II Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther, Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, The Song of Songs, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Lamentations, Ezekiel, Daniel, Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi. Of the New Testament: The Gospels according to Matthew, Mark, Luke, John, The Acts of the Apostles, Paul's Epistles to the Romans, Corinthians I, Corinthians II, Galatians, Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, Thessalonians I, Thessalonians II, to Timothy I, to Timothy II, to Titus, to Philemon, The Epistle to the Hebrews, The Epistle of James, The first and second Epistles of Peter, The first, second, and third Epistles of John, The Epistle of Jude, The Revelation of John. All which are given by inspiration of God to be the rule of faith and life.

— Westminster Confession of Faith, Chapter 1, Section 2

Introduction: The Question of the Canon

In Section 1 we established that Scripture is necessary — that the light of nature, while real, is not sufficient for salvation, and that God has therefore revealed himself and committed that revelation to writing. But that raises an immediate question: which writings? Which books actually belong to this collection we call the Bible? This is the question of the canon. It is not a secondary question. If we say that Scripture is necessary, we must be able to say which books constitute that Scripture. The Westminster Confession answers with a list — the sixty-six books of the Old and New Testaments. This list is not a mere catalogue; it is a confession of faith.

Scripture Foundation

The Confession's second section is built upon two great pillars of Scripture: the doctrine of inspiration and the doctrine of the canon. Let us consider the chief proof texts that support this portion of our confession. 2 Timothy 3:16 — "All scripture is given by inspiration of God, and is profitable for doctrine, for reproof, for correction, for instruction in righteousness." This is the verse that provides the very language of the Confession's closing phrase. The Greek word translated "given by inspiration of God" is theopneustos — literally "God-breathed." It occurs only here in the New Testament. Paul is writing to Timothy, his son in the faith, and he is reminding him of the sacred writings he has known since childhood. These writings, Paul declares, are not merely human compositions. They are breathed out by God Himself. Every word, every phrase, every sentence has its origin in the mouth of the Almighty. 2 Peter 1:20-21 — "Knowing this first, that no prophecy of the scripture is of any private interpretation. For the prophecy came not in old time by the will of man: but holy men of God spake as they were moved by the Holy Ghost." Here Peter gives us the other side of the doctrine. If 2 Timothy tells us that Scripture is God-breathed, 2 Peter tells us how it came to be so. The prophets did not speak from their own impulse or invention. They were "moved" by the Holy Spirit — the Greek word pheromenoi means "borne along" or "carried." As a ship is carried by the wind, so the sacred writers were carried by the Spirit. They were not passive secretaries taking dictation (the Confession will later affirm that God used their individual styles and circumstances), but they were so superintended by the Holy Spirit that what they wrote was exactly what God intended to communicate. Revelation 22:18-19 — "For I testify unto every man that heareth the words of the prophecy of this book, If any man shall add unto these things, God shall add unto him the plagues that are written in this book: And if any man shall take away from the words of the book of this prophecy, God shall take away his part out of the book of life, and out of the holy city, and from the things which are written in this book." The closing verses of the Bible serve as a divine seal upon the entire canon. While these words refer immediately to the book of Revelation, the church has always seen in them a broader application to the whole of Scripture. They declare that the canon is closed. Nothing may be added to it. Nothing may be taken from it. The Bible is complete. Deuteronomy 4:2 — "Ye shall not add unto the word which I command you, neither shall ye diminish ought from it, that ye may keep the commandments of the LORD your God which I command you." Moses set the pattern at the very beginning of the canon. The Word of God is not a living tradition that can be expanded or adapted. It is a fixed deposit, a completed revelation, a finished work. This principle runs through the whole of Scripture. Luke 24:44 — "And he said unto them, These are the words which I spake unto you, while I was yet with you, that all things must be fulfilled, which were written in the law of Moses, and in the prophets, and in the psalms, concerning me." Here our Lord Himself affirms the threefold division of the Old Testament canon: the Law, the Prophets, and the Writings (of which the Psalms were the first and largest book). Jesus recognized a fixed body of sacred literature, and He based His own identity and mission upon it. If our Lord received a closed canon, how much more should we? John 10:35 — "The scripture cannot be broken." In a single argument with the Pharisees, Jesus declared the indestructible authority of Scripture. If He called the Scriptures "the word of God" (John 10:35, referring to Psalm 82:6) and said they "cannot be broken," then we have His divine warrant for receiving every book of the canon as the authoritative Word of God.

What the Divines Meant

Why This Section Matters The second section of Chapter 1 answers a question that is absolutely fundamental: Which books are Scripture? The first section argued that Scripture is necessary for salvation. But that argument is useless unless we know which books constitute Scripture. The Roman Catholic Church claimed that the church determines the canon. The radical sects claimed new revelations. The rationalists claimed that only those parts of the Bible that agree with reason are authoritative. Against all of these, the Westminster Divines drew a clear line: these sixty-six books, and these alone, are the Word of God written. The Historical Context The Westminster Assembly met in the 1640s, a time when the question of the canon was hotly disputed. The Council of Trent (1545-1563) had declared the Apocryphal books to be canonical Scripture, anathematizing anyone who disagreed. The Church of Rome had elevated tradition to a position equal with Scripture. And on the other side, the radical sects of the Reformation — the Anabaptists, the Seekers, the Families — were claiming new revelations from the Spirit that superseded the written Word. The Divines were called to chart a middle course between these extremes. They affirmed against Rome that the church does not create the canon but recognizes it. They affirmed against the radicals that the canon is closed and no new revelations are to be expected. And they affirmed against the rationalists that the canon is complete and self-authenticating, needing no external validation. A.A. Hodge on the Canon A.A. Hodge, in his classic commentary, observes that this section serves three purposes. First, it identifies precisely which books are to be received as canonical. Second, it asserts that these books, and these alone, are inspired by God. Third, it declares that these inspired books constitute the only "rule of faith and life" — meaning that they are the final standard for everything we believe (faith) and everything we do (life). Hodge notes the careful language: "Under the name of Holy Scripture, or the Word of God written, are now contained all the books." The word "now" is significant. It indicates that the canon was not always complete — it grew over time as God added new revelations. But it is now complete. The canon is closed. No new books can be added because no new revelation is being given. Robert Shaw on the Distinction Robert Shaw, the Scottish Presbyterian divine whose exposition of the Confession remains a standard work, draws attention to a crucial distinction. The Confession does not say that these books become the Word of God because the church receives them. It says that they are the Word of God written, and therefore the church receives them. The canon is recognized, not created. Shaw writes: "The books of Scripture are not inspired because they are canonical; but they are canonical because they are inspired. The church has no authority to make any book canonical, but only to declare what books are canonical — that is, to testify to the fact of their inspiration." This is the fundamental Protestant principle of the self-authenticating nature of Scripture. The Bible does not derive its authority from the church. The church derives its authority from the Bible. As Augustine famously said, "I would not believe the gospel unless the authority of the Catholic Church moved me" — but even Augustine did not mean what the Council of Trent took him to mean. He meant that the church is the historical witness that transmits the Scriptures to us, not that the church confers authority upon them. The Westminster Divines on the "Rule of Faith and Life" The phrase "rule of faith and life" echoes the Latin regula fidei et vitae that was used throughout the history of the church. It means that Scripture is the standard, the measure, the norm for all that Christians believe and all that Christians do. Every doctrine must be tested by Scripture. Every practice must be measured by Scripture. Every experience must be evaluated by Scripture. There is no other rule. This is the great Reformation principle of sola Scriptura. It does not mean that the church has no authority, or that tradition is worthless, or that reason is useless. It means that Scripture is the final authority, the supreme authority, the only infallible authority. The church may teach, but its teaching must be tested by Scripture. Tradition may be consulted, but it must be corrected by Scripture. Reason may be employed, but it must be submitted to Scripture. B.B. Warfield on Inspiration B.B. Warfield, the great Princeton theologian whose name is synonymous with the doctrine of biblical inspiration, argued that the Westminster Divines held a view of inspiration that was both strong and nuanced. They believed in plenary inspiration — that every part of Scripture is equally inspired. They believed in verbal inspiration — that the inspiration extends to the very words, not merely the thoughts. They believed in organic inspiration — that the Holy Spirit worked through the personalities and styles of the human authors, not overriding them but superintending them. Warfield notes that the phrase "given by inspiration of God" in the Confession is a direct translation of the Greek theopneustos. He argues that this word means more than that the writers were inspired in the sense of being elevated or enlightened. It means that the writings themselves are breathed out by God. The product is divine. The Scripture is not merely a record of revelation; it is itself revelation — the very Word of God in written form.

Theological Depth

John Calvin on the Witness of the Spirit In his Institutes of the Christian Religion, Calvin has a profound discussion of how we know which books belong to the canon. He refuses to ground the authority of Scripture in the decree of the church. To do so, he argues, is to invert the proper order. The church is founded upon Scripture, not Scripture upon the church. But Calvin also refuses to ground the authority of Scripture in rational arguments alone, however powerful they may be. He writes: "The testimony of the Spirit is more excellent than all reason. For as God alone is a fit witness of Himself in His Word, so also the Word will not find acceptance in men's hearts before it is sealed by the inward testimony of the Spirit." This is the great Reformed doctrine of the testimonium internum Spiritus Sancti — the internal witness of the Holy Spirit. The same Spirit who inspired the Word must illuminate our hearts to receive it as the Word. We do not believe the Bible because we have been convinced by arguments, though arguments may help. We believe it because the Spirit of God bears witness with our spirit that this book is from God. Calvin then gives a series of "external proofs" that confirm the divine origin of Scripture — its antiquity, its majesty, its harmony, its power, the fulfillment of its prophecies, the preservation of its text. But these proofs, he insists, are only subsidiary. The ultimate ground of our assurance is the internal witness of the Spirit. Thomas Watson on the Excellency of the Canon Thomas Watson, in his Body of Divinity, devotes several pages to the excellency of Scripture and the integrity of the canon. He is writing not for scholars but for ordinary Christians, and his language is warm and accessible. Watson draws attention to the variety of the canonical books: "Here is history to inform us, poetry to delight us, prophecy to foretell things to come, and doctrine to instruct us. Here are mysteries to be believed, precepts to be obeyed, promises to be embraced, and threatenings to be feared." He argues that the very arrangement of the books is providential. The Old Testament begins with Genesis — the book of beginnings — and ends with Malachi, who points forward to the coming of Christ. The New Testament begins with the Gospels — the life of Christ — and ends with Revelation — the consummation of all things. The whole is a single story, from creation to consummation, held together by the thread of redemption. On the canon itself, Watson is clear: "The Apocrypha is not part of the canon. It was never received by the Jewish church, to whom were committed the oracles of God. It was never cited by Christ or the apostles. It contains things fabulous and contradictory to Scripture. It teaches doctrines contrary to Scripture, such as praying for the dead and the merit of works." Watson then gives a memorable analogy: "The Scripture is the royal court of heaven, where everyone who comes may have an audience with the King. In prayer we speak to God; in Scripture God speaks to us." Herman Witsius on the Covenant Context Herman Witsius, the great Dutch theologian of the seventeenth century, wrote his masterpiece The Economy of the Covenants between God and Man as a comprehensive exposition of Reformed theology. While he does not focus on the canon as a separate topic, his work provides a crucial framework for understanding why Scripture is called "the rule of faith and life." Witsius argues that the covenant of grace is administered in different ways in different ages, but the substance is always the same: Christ, the mediator, and faith in Him. The Scriptures are the written record and instrument of this covenant. They are not merely a collection of religious writings; they are the covenant document of the living God, given to His people as their charter, their constitution, their deed of inheritance. This is why the Confession calls Scripture the "rule of faith and life." A covenant always has terms. The covenant of grace has terms — not conditions of merit, but terms of relationship. We must believe (faith) and we must obey (life). The Scriptures tell us what to believe and how to live. They are the terms of the covenant, given by the covenant God to His covenant people. Francis Turretin on the Canon Francis Turretin, the seventeenth-century Genevan theologian whose Institutes of Elenctic Theology became the standard textbook of Reformed orthodoxy, gives a detailed treatment of the canon. He argues for the canonicity of the sixty-six books on several grounds: First, the Jewish church — to whom "were committed the oracles of God" (Romans 3:2) — received the Old Testament books and not the Apocrypha. The Jewish canon was closed in the time of Ezra and Nehemiah, and the Apocryphal books, written during the intertestamental period, were never part of it. Second, Christ and the apostles quote from the Old Testament hundreds of times, but never once from the Apocrypha as Scripture. They refer to "the law and the prophets" as a closed body of literature. Third, the New Testament books authenticate themselves through their apostolic origin. The Gospels were written by apostles (Matthew and John) or by apostolic men (Mark, who wrote under Peter's supervision; Luke, who wrote under Paul's supervision). The Epistles bear the names of apostles. The church received these books because it recognized their apostolic authority. Fourth, the internal characteristics of the canonical books — their majesty, their purity, their power, their harmony — bear witness to their divine origin. John Owen on the Self-Authenticating Nature of Scripture John Owen, the greatest of the Puritan theologians, wrote extensively on the canon and the authority of Scripture. In his monumental work The Divine Original of the Scripture, Owen argues that the Scripture carries within itself the evidence of its own divinity. It does not need the church to authenticate it; it authenticates itself. Owen writes: "The light of the Scripture is like the light of the sun. The sun does not need the testimony of any other light to prove that it shines. It is self-evidencing. So the Scripture, by its own light and power, manifests itself to the conscience as the Word of God." This is a profound point. We do not believe the Bible because the church tells us to believe it, or because we have been argued into submission. We believe it because, when the Spirit opens our eyes, we see it for what it is. The same self-authenticating light that makes the sun known by its own brightness makes the Scripture known by its own divine quality. The Significance of the List Why does the Confession include this long list of books? It is not merely a piece of cataloging. The list itself is a theological statement. It says: these books, and these only, are the Word of God. The canon is not an open-ended collection. It is a definite, bounded set of writings. The church did not create this set; it recognized it. The books were not made canonical by the church's decree; they were recognized as canonical by the church's discernment. The list of the Old Testament books follows the Hebrew canon exactly. The Westminster Divines rejected the Apocryphal books that the Council of Trent had declared canonical — books like Tobit, Judith, Wisdom of Solomon, Ecclesiasticus, Baruch, and the Maccabees. In doing so, they followed the judgment of the ancient Jewish church and the early Christian church, which always distinguished between the canonical books and the Apocrypha. The list of the New Testament books includes the twenty-seven books that the church has universally received since the fourth century. The Westminster Divines were not innovators here; they were confessing what the church had always believed.

Puritan Application

Let us now apply these truths to our own souls. First, do you know which books belong to the Bible, and why? How many Christians could list the sixty-six books of the Bible from memory? How many know why the Apocrypha is rejected and the canonical books received? The Puritans would have encouraged every household to know the names of the books of the Bible and to be able to turn to them readily. But more than this, do you know why you believe these books are the Word of God? Can you give a reason for the hope that is in you? Can you tell your children why the Bible is not like other books? The Westminster Divines have given us an answer: because these books are "given by inspiration of God." They are God-breathed. That is why we receive them. Second, do you treat the Bible as the "rule of faith"? The Confession calls Scripture the "rule of faith." This means that everything you believe must be tested by Scripture. Your doctrine must come from Scripture. Your understanding of God, of Christ, of salvation, of the church, of the end times — all must be drawn from the Word. Search your heart: Are there any beliefs you hold that cannot be supported by Scripture? Are there any doctrines you have received from tradition, from popular teaching, from your own imagination, that are not grounded in the Word? The Puritans would have you be ruthless with yourself. Bring every belief to the bar of Scripture. Let the Word judge your faith, not your faith judge the Word. Third, do you treat the Bible as the "rule of life"? The Confession calls Scripture the "rule of life" as well as the "rule of faith." This means that the Bible is the standard for how you live — not merely what you believe. Every area of your life must be submitted to its authority. Thomas Watson asks a piercing question: "Why do many read the Bible and become no better?" He answers: "Because they do not read it as a rule of life but only as a matter of knowledge. They read it to inform their heads, not to reform their hearts." Does the Bible regulate your speech? Does it regulate your use of money? Does it regulate your relationships? Does it regulate your work and your rest? Does it regulate your thoughts and your desires? If there is any area of your life that you have exempted from the authority of Scripture, then you have not yet submitted fully to the rule of the Word. Fourth, do you receive the Bible as inspired by God? The Confession's great phrase — "given by inspiration of God" — is the foundation of everything else. If the Bible is merely a human book, it has no more authority than any other human book. But if it is God-breathed, then it carries the authority of God Himself. The Puritans would have you consider: Do you read the Bible as God's Word to you? Do you approach it with reverence and awe? Do you tremble at its words? Do you obey its commands? Do you trust its promises? Do you fear its warnings? John Owen used to say that a man who does not tremble at the Word of God does not yet know the God of the Word. The Bible is not a book to be trifled with. It is the voice of the living God, speaking to your soul. Fifth, are you content with the closed canon? The Confession lists the books and stops. There are no more. The canon is closed. The Lord who spoke "at sundry times and in divers manners" through the prophets has now spoken fully and finally through His Son, and that revelation is committed to writing. This means you are not to seek new revelations. You are not to look for words of prophecy that add to Scripture. You are not to follow teachers who claim to have received new light beyond what is written. The canon is closed. The Spirit's work today is not to give new revelations but to illuminate the revelation already given. As A.A. Hodge says: "No new revelations of the Spirit are to be expected now, because He has already given us a complete and all-sufficient rule." Sixth, are you reading all of Scripture? The Confession lists all sixty-six books. Not just the Gospels. Not just the Psalms. Not just the parts you find comfortable. All of Scripture is given by inspiration of God, and all of it is profitable. Do you read the Law? Do you read the Prophets? Do you read the histories? Do you read the difficult passages? Do you read the genealogies? Do you read the apocalyptic visions? The whole counsel of God is contained in all the books. Do not pick and choose. Let the whole Word shape your whole soul. A Word for Those Who Neglect Scripture Thomas Watson has a sharp word for those who neglect the Bible: "Oh how many can be looking at their faces in a glass all the morning — but their eyes begin to be sore when they look upon a Bible! Heathens die for lack of Scripture, and these in contempt of it. They surely must needs go wrong who slight their only guide." And again: "The Scripture is the field where Christ the pearl of great price is hidden. In this sacred mine we dig, not for a wedge of gold, but for a weight of glory." If you have neglected the Word, let this be the day you return to it. Open your Bible. Read it not as a duty but as a delight. Read it not to pass the time but to meet with God. Read it not to fill your head but to transform your heart. A Word for Those Who Love Scripture To those who love the Word, the Puritans would say: prize it, study it, meditate upon it, hide it in your heart, share it with others. Let the Word of Christ dwell in you richly. Let it be more precious than gold, sweeter than honey, brighter than the morning star. And remember: the Word points beyond itself. These sixty-six books are not an end in themselves. They are the means by which we come to know the Word made flesh, Jesus Christ our Lord. As you read the Bible, seek Christ. Every page speaks of Him. Every promise points to Him. Every shadow finds its substance in Him.

Prayer

Blessed Lord, who hast spoken to us by Thy holy prophets and apostles, and hast caused Thy Word to be written for our instruction and salvation: we give Thee thanks for the sacred Scriptures, the sixty-six books of the Old and New Testaments, which are given by inspiration of God. We thank Thee that Thou hast not left us to wander in uncertainty, but hast given us a sure and certain canon — a complete revelation, a finished Word, a closed and sealed deposit of saving truth. Help us to receive these books as what they truly are: not the words of men but the Word of the living God. Grant us grace to treat Thy Word as the rule of our faith and the rule of our life. Let every doctrine we hold be tested by Scripture. Let every step we take be guided by Scripture. Let every thought be brought into captivity to the obedience of Christ, as He is revealed in Scripture. We confess that we have often neglected this precious gift. We have read it carelessly, when it deserves our deepest reverence. We have treated it as common, when it is most holy. We have been selective in our reading, neglecting whole portions of Thy counsel. Forgive us, O Lord, and renew in us a love for Thy Word. Give us the spirit of the psalmist, who said, "Thy word have I hid in mine heart, that I might not sin against Thee." Give us the hunger of the Bereans, who searched the Scriptures daily. Give us the joy of Jeremiah, who said, "Thy words were found, and I did eat them; and Thy word was unto me the joy and rejoicing of mine heart." Keep us from the temptation to add to Thy Word or to take from it. Preserve us from false teachers who would lead us astray. And by the inward witness of Thy Holy Spirit, seal upon our hearts the certainty that this book is from Thee. And when at last we shall see Thee face to face, and know even as we are known, may we bless Thee forever for the Word that led us to the Word made flesh, even Jesus Christ our Lord, who with Thee and the Holy Ghost livest and reignest, one God, world without end. Amen.